By Bhogtoram Mawroh
Recently, the Union Environment Ministry issued an office memorandum (OM) exempting the extraction of atomic, critical, and strategic minerals from public consultation. This order meant that now the Union Government could now go ahead with the extraction of minerals like uranium, which the people of Meghalaya have firmly opposed since the 1980s. Many cite the health dangers as a reason to oppose the extraction. In college, I remember watching a documentary ‘Buddha Weeps in Jadugoda’ which showed the horrifying ill-effects of uranium mining among the local community.
Jaduguda is the homeland of the Mundas and other indigenous communities closely related to the Khasis. In fact, the Khasis and Mundas had a common ancestor around 4000 years ago. This is also the time when archaeological evidence shows that the Khasis had already arrived in what is today Meghalaya. Genetic evidence suggests the Khasis arrived a thousand years earlier, i.e., 5000 years ago in what is today South Asia, making them the second oldest community in the region after the Dravidians. Some evidence suggests that the ancient Khasis, who became the Mundas, were actually one of the groups inhabiting the Indus Valley Civilization. Indo-European speakers, who came from Central Asia 3500 years ago, now occupy the region where the civilization existed, displacing the local population. But in Meghalaya, they Khasis have been able to resist any incursion into their territory for at least the last 4000 years. We know that because the Khasis still exist in Meghalaya today, speaking the language and following the matrilineal custom that they brought from South China 5000 years ago. There are no references in oral history of any outsiders coming into the Khasi territory and subjugating its people. History records only two instances of such an attempt, one being the Ahom invasion of Hima Jaintiapur at the beginning of the 18th century.
The Jayantia Buranji contains a more detailed account of the Ahom invasion of Hima Jaintiapur. But if readers want an abridged version, EA Gait, ‘A History of Assam’, is a good place to start. There is a chapter on Jaintia Kings which describes the dominion of Jaintia Syiems which “included two distinct tracts of the country, namely, the Jaintia Hills, which are inhabited by a Khasi tribe called, Synteng (Pnar), and the plains country, south of these hills and north of the Barak river, in the Sylhet district, now known as Jaintia parganas, the inhabitants of which are Bengali Hindus and Muhammadans.” According to Gait, Hima Jaintiapur was one of the main kingdoms among the Khasis, the other one being Hima Khyrim (Hima Shillong). Oral traditions reveal the antecedents of both the kingdoms connected with the story of mythical ‘Ka Li Dakha’ and ‘Ka Pahsyntiew’ which talks about the kingdoms being founded by children of divine women who married mortal men. The descendants of ‘Ka Li Dakha’ founded the kingdom of Hima Sutnga, which later became Hima Jaintipur after the War Amwi conquered the Kingdom of Jaintiapur. It was this new kingdom that came into conflict with the Ahoms, resulting in the invasion of the Jaintia Hills.
In 1707, the Ahom king Rudra Singha invaded the kingdom of Kachari king Tamradhvaj, who then asked for help from the Syiem of Hima Jaintiapur, Ram Singh, who collected his army and planned to march to help fight against the Ahom. But Rudra Singha withdrew before Ram Singh could intervene, and the latter saw an opportunity to incorporate the Kachari kingdom into his domain. Tamradhvaj was kidnapped and kept as a prisoner. The nobles, Myntris, had strongly advised against this act. Tamradhvaj then asked for help from Rudra Singh, and the latter invaded Hima Jaintiapur to free him.
The armies sent to invade Jaintiapur included one under Bar Barua, which approached through the Kachari area (i.e., from the plains), and the other under Bar Phukan, who was ordered to march over the Jaintia Hills direct to Jaintiapur. The first army met little resistance and could reach Jaintiapur. Ram Singh wanted to escape, but his nobles, who were always against the kidnapping of Tamradhvaj, did not allow him to escape and forced him to surrender to the Ahom. But it was the entry of the other army through the hills that enraged the Pnars, who rose to defend their homeland from invaders in order to preserve their independence. They solicited the help of Bar Dalai, the Syiem of Khyrim/Shillong, to join them in repelling the invaders. Tradition suggests that a large number of archers from Hima Khyrim/Shillong offered support and fought against the Ahoms.
After a series of fights, the Pnars could force Bar Phukan and his troops (those who were lucky not to be captured and put to death) to retreat before another detachment of Ahom troops rescued him. Rudra Singha sent more forces, and they could drive the Pnars away but never completely defeat them. As the rainy season approached, the Ahoms, apprehensive about staying in hostile territory, decided to return. But before doing so, they committed a massacre in Jaintiapur. At the end of the expedition, almost 2500 Ahom soldiers died, while Gait didn’t bother to mention the exact number of casualties among the Pnars because they were so few. Rudra Singha was so enraged at the expedition’s failure that he originally intended to punish the commanders, but the nobles prevented him. Ram Singh, the Syiem of Hima Jaintiapur, who had been taken prisoner at the beginning, died in 1708 of dysentery during his captivity. His heir, Jay Narayan, succeeded him after the Ahoms released and allowed him to return to his kingdom.
Those who are interested in reading about the resistance put up by the Pnars and how they could preserve their independence can do so by reading it in the Jayantia Buranji, which has detailed accounts of the Ahom invasion and the events that took place during it. Hima Jaintiapur was defeated by the Ahoms, who occupied its territory in the plains. This is the portion that was actually mostly inhabited by the Bangals (Bengali Hindus and Muslims). But when they decided to incorporate the hills, homeland of the Pnars, they suffered heavy casualties and retreated. This is the only time before the British that there is a record of outsiders attempting to enter the homeland of the Khasis in order to bring it under their subjugation. It did not end well for them. This is also the only instance we know of when the Khasis, living in different Himas—i.e., Hima Jaintiapur and Hima Khyrim/Shillong—came together to fight against a foreign invader. One wondered if all the Khasi Himas had been a joint confederate, what they could have achieved. The British had already conquered a large part of the world, so it was not surprising that they were the first and only one, according to oral tradition and recorded history, to occupy the homeland of the Khasis.
The resistance against uranium mining is not only about the health dangers but also about the attempt by non-Khasis to enter Khasi territory and take their resources without their consent. This is the homeland that the Khasis have defended for 5000 years, predating the very concept of India (name given to the sub-continent by the ancient Greeks – around 2000 years ago) or Bharat (after the mythical emperor featured in Hindu mythology – also around 2000 years ago) that emerged much later. So, for many, the order of the Union Environment Ministry exempting public consultation on the extraction of minerals like uranium is an incursion into their homeland, which is not acceptable.
Of course, there are those among the Khasis who support the mining of uranium. One of my friends worked on a project in the area that contained uranium deposits. The head of the project, a Khasi, supported the mining, never visited the site but asked his staff to stay in the village for data collection. I would support uranium mining if this person or others like them consumed the soil from the area and asked their family to do the same to prove that mining poses no inherent danger. This is very important because non-Khasis who don’t have a connection to the land will not care what happens to it or to the local Khasi community. But if the Khasis themselves are also as unconcerned as the outsiders, then all opposition is futile. Let the mining take place, let’s make a lot of money and buy properties in Guwahati or elsewhere to settle down. Why resist? Isn’t that a much more pleasing option? Anyway, we will find out soon. Who does this land belong to: the Khasis or the outsiders?
(The views expressed in the article are those of the author and do not reflect in any way his affiliation to any organisation or institution)
