By VK Lyngdoh
Dwijendra Narayan Jha, who died at the age of 81 years, was professor at the History Department, Delhi University. He specialized in ancient and medieval history. In his book “The Myth of the Holy Cow”, he alleged that cows formed part of the diet in ancient India. Cattle were neither inviolable nor as revered in ancient times as they were later. Quoting from the Vedas the oldest religious text in the world and the Upanishads, he alleged that cattle were offered as sacrifice to various deities and that hardly any prayer was complete without animal sacrifice. Jha received death threats over his book. He discussed the events surrounding the publication in the introduction to the book saying, “Shortly afterwards, I began to get threats from unidentified callers asking me not to go ahead with the publication. Undeterred by all this Matrix Books, a new enterprising publishing house based in Delhi, mustered enough courage to publish the book promptly in the first week of August 2001. But some right-wing politicians and groups of religious fanatics, without reading a single page, termed it ‘blasphemous’, demanded my arrest and succeeded in obtaining a court order restraining the circulation of the book, and a self-appointed custodian of ‘Hinduism’ even sentenced me to death. The book was therefore published abroad by Verso (London).”
Jha’s argument about beef eating during the Vedic period is supported by several types of evidence. References in the Rigveda and other Vedic texts mention the slaughter of cattle for rituals and feasts. For example, the Rigveda mentions the sacrifice of bulls and cows in various hymns. Archaeological evidence also prove that cows were slaughtered and eaten. Excavations at sites like Hastinapur and Atranjikhera have revealed cattle bones with cut marks, indicating that cattle were slaughtered and consumed. Literary sources: Ancient Indian epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana also contain references to the consumption of beef.
In the Mahabharata, for instance, there are descriptions of feasts where beef was served. Historical accounts by foreign travellers and historians, such as Megasthenes and Al-Biruni, mention the consumption of beef in ancient India. Some Brahmanical texts, like the Dharma sutras and the Manu Smriti, contain rules about the consumption of meat, including beef, under certain circumstances. These pieces of evidence collectively support the view that beef eating was not uncommon during the Vedic period and that cow sanctity evolved over time.
The reasons behind consuming beef during that period are attributed to the fact that cattle were often sacrificed in religious rituals and ceremonies. These sacrifices were believed to please the gods and ensure prosperity and wellbeing. Offering beef to guests was considered a mark of respect and hospitality. It was customary to serve the best food, including beef, to honour visitors. Beef was a valuable source of nutrition, providing essential proteins and fats.
In a society where agriculture and animal husbandry were central, cattle were an important food source. As far as economic utility is concerned, cattle were not only a source of food but also played a crucial role in agriculture and transportation. However, when cattle became unproductive, they were often slaughtered for meat. The consumption of beef was integrated into the cultural and social practices of the time. Feasts and communal meals often included beef, reflecting its acceptance in society. These reasons highlight the multifaceted role of cattle in Vedic society, encompassing religious, social, economic, and nutritional dimension.
During the Vedic period, beef played a significant role in various rituals and ceremonies. Some of the key aspects include cows and bulls being sacrificed in religious rituals to please the gods. These sacrifices were believed to ensure prosperity, fertility, and well-being of the community. The Rigveda, one of the oldest Vedic texts, contains hymns that mention the sacrifice of cattle. Madhuparka ceremony was a ritual of hospitality where a special meal, often including beef, was offered to honoured guests, such as priests or dignitaries. The offering of beef in this context was a mark of respect and high regard. In various Yajnas, or fire sacrifices, cattle were offered to the deities. The meat from these sacrifices was then consumed by the participants, including priests and householders. These rituals were centra; to Vedic religious practices and were believed to maintain cosmic order.
In some instances, cattle were sacrificed during funerary rites to accompany the deceased into the afterlife. This practice was meant to provide sustenance and support for the departed soul on its journey. Beyond their practical use, cattle held symbolic significance in Vedic rituals. They were seen as embodiments of wealth and prosperity, and their sacrifice was thought to release spiritual energy that benefited the community. These rituals highlight the integral role of cattle in Vedic society, both as a source of sustenance and as a key element of religious and social practices.
The perception about cows in Indian society has evolved significantly over time, influenced by various religious, cultural and socio-political factors. After the Vedic period, the importance of non-violence (ahimsa) began to grow, particularly with the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. These religions emphasized compassion towards all living beings, including animals, which contributed to a shift in attitudes towards cattle. During the later Vedic period and the subsequent Brahmanical period, texts like the Manu Smriti began to emphasize the sanctity of the cow. The cow came to be seen as a symbol of wealth, fertility, and religious purity. By the medieval period, the cow had become a central symbol in Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, which emphasized devotion to personal gods, further reinforced the cow’s secret status. Stories and legends about the cow’s divine nature became widespread.
During British colonial rule, the cow became a symbol of resistance and identity for many Hindus. Cow protection gained momentum, advocating for prevention of cows from being slaughtered. This period saw the cow being increasingly associated with Hindu identity and nationalism. In contemporary India, the cow remains a potent symbol of religious and cultural identity. Cow protection laws have been enacted in many states, and the cow continues to be revered in Hindu rituals and festivals. These changes reflect a complex interplay of religious teachings, cultural practices, and socio-political movements that have shaped the perception of cows over millennia.