By Bijoy A Sangma
Meghalaya’s vast coal reserves have long been both an economic lifeline and an environmental catastrophe. For decades, the state depended on rat-hole mining, a hazardous and unregulated practice where miners – some barely in their teens – squeezed through narrow, suffocating tunnels to extract coal. These tunnels, often no more than two meters high, lacked basic safety measures, making collapses, suffocation, and flash floods a constant threat. Driven by poverty and the promise of quick earnings, labourers risked their lives in these perilous underground labyrinths, often without protective gear or proper ventilation.
The environmental damage was catastrophic. Mongabay, a US based non-profit conservation and environmental science news platform, reported that Global Forest Watch figures show 60,914 hectares of forest loss between 2001 and 2012, representing almost 3 percent of the state’s geographic area. Hillsides were stripped bare, causing erosion, landslides, and habitat loss. Rivers turned toxic from acid mine drainage, contaminating water with heavy metals and sulphur. The once-pristine Lukha River in Jaintia Hills, for instance, turned an unnatural shade of blue – an eerie testament to the pollution wrought by decades of unscientific mining.Beyond environmental damage, the human cost was devastating. Since 2012, reportedly at least 60 miners have died, though unreported accidents suggest a higher toll. On December 13, 2018, 20 miners were trapped in a mine in Ksan. Five managed to escape. Rescue efforts for the remaining 15 continued for months, but failed. Six months after 15 miners were trapped in a watery grave in Meghalaya, the National Green Tribunal was informed that there are a total of 24,392 coal mines in the Jaintia Hills. Entire communities remained trapped in a cycle of dependence – relying on an industry that provided livelihoods but also brought exploitation, health risks, and economic instability.
Recognizing the mounting crisis, in 2014, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned coal mining and transportation in Meghalaya over environmental and human rights concerns. Though a landmark intervention, enforcement proved difficult. With thousands reliant on coal and powerful interests at play, illegal mining continued, highlighting the ongoing struggle to balance sustainability with livelihoods.
Supreme Court’s Landmark Ruling
In a landmark ruling of July 3, 2019, the Supreme Court reaffirmed the NGT’s ban on unregulated coal mining in Meghalaya, citing severe environmental damage and human rights violations. Recognizing the state’s ecological crisis, the Court ordered Meghalaya to deposit Rs 100 crore with the Central Pollution Control Board for restoration, holding it accountable for years of neglect. However, rather than an outright ban, the ruling allowed coal mining to continue, with clarity that while unscientific and illegal mining practices must be eradicated, Meghalaya could resume coal extraction if it adopted scientific mining methods that ensured environmental sustainability, worker safety, and regulatory compliance.
The ruling redefined coal mining in Meghalaya, allowing legal extraction under strict safeguards. It mandated environmental impact assessments, waste management, and land reclamation to curb ecological damage while ensuring worker safety and eliminating exploitative labour practices. However, transitioning from illegal rat-hole mining to regulated methods required structural reforms, administrative approvals, and infrastructural investments – challenges that have delayed progress for years.
Despite the judicial directive, illegal coal mining persists in parts of Meghalaya, highlighting enforcement gaps. With thousands relying on mining for livelihoods and strong political-business interests at play, eradication remains challenging.
Shift to Scientific Mining
After nearly a decade of legal battles, policy debates, and environmental concerns, now, Meghalaya is cautiously stepping into a new era of regulated coal mining, transitioning from the dangerous and unregulated rat-hole mining practices that once defined the state’s coal economy. This shift is being guided by the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, ensuring that coal extraction aligns with scientific mining principles, prioritizing worker safety, environmental sustainability, and regulatory oversight. By August 2024, the state received 36 mining applications, with 13 securing prospecting licenses and four obtaining prior approval for full-scale mining leases, signalling a formal industry revival.
By January 2025, the Central government signed agreements with three local mining operators, granting them the necessary clearances to commence scientific coal mining operations in the West Khasi Hills and East Jaintia Hills districts, regions historically known for extensive coal extraction. This marks a shift from unregulated rat-hole mining to a structured, sustainable industry. The new framework mandates modern extraction methods, strict environmental assessments, mine closure plans, and improved labour conditions, prioritizing safety and fair wages, moving away from the exploitative, unsafe conditions that previously claimed numerous lives.
However, the transition to scientific mining is not without obstacles. The enforcement of new mining regulations, the monitoring of compliance, and the political and economic complexities surrounding coal interests in Meghalaya pose ongoing challenges. With many relying on coal and illegal mining persisting, success depends on strict oversight, transparent governance, and balancing economic and environmental interests. If executed effectively, this move could set a precedent for responsible mining in India, demonstrating that economic development and environmental conservation can coexist without compromising future generations.
Scientific Mining Delayed, Finally Begins
Despite progress toward scientific mining, implementation remained slow due to administrative hurdles. As of January 16, 2025, Meghalaya awaited final approval from the Union Coal Ministry, despite securing all state-level clearances. Chief Minister Conrad Sangma assured that formalities were complete, but the decision remained stalled in New Delhi. The delay frustrated local miners and raised concerns about illegal mining’s resurgence. While the government advocates scientific mining, the lack of clear timelines risks pushing miners back to unregulated extraction. Without swift, transparent action from the Union government, Meghalaya may once again fall into the trap of weak enforcement and economic pressures sustaining illicit mining.
Finally, after over a decade, Chief Minister Conrad K. Sangma inaugurated Meghalaya’s first scientific coal mine at Saryngkham-A, Byndihati, East Jaintia Hills, on March 17, 2025. Reflecting on the journey, he acknowledged the uncertainties and challenges but emphasized the government’s commitment to restoring normalcy for the people.
Learning from the Past
Unlike unregulated rat-hole mining, scientific mining follows strict regulations to minimize ecological and human risks. Mandatory Environmental Impact Assessments ensure biodiversity conservation and community welfare. Controlled blasting reduces underground disturbances, while proper waste disposal curbs acid mine drainage. Crucially, land reclamation and afforestation are required to restore mined areas rather than leaving them barren and toxic.
While these measures can help undo decades of damage, their success depends on strict enforcement, robust monitoring, and political will. Meghalaya’s history shows that weak oversight and vested interests can undermine reforms, allowing illegal mining to persist. True change requires not just modern techniques but integrity, accountability, and a commitment to sustainability. Only then can Meghalaya hope to strike a balance between economic prosperity and environmental preservation, turning its coal-rich legacy from a liability into a responsibly managed resource.
Economic and Social Implications
The resumption of scientific mining in Meghalaya offers immense economic potential through job creation, revenue generation, and community integration. Legalizing mining under strict regulatory oversight is expected to provide stable employment for thousands previously engaged in hazardous rat-hole mining. Proper regulation could also strengthen Meghalaya’s financial position. However, success depends on industrial efficiency and the meaningful inclusion of local communities. Former rat-hole miners must be equipped with skills and training to integrate into the scientific mining framework.
Yet, Economic progress must not come at the cost of environmental or social harm. To realize the promise of scientific mining, policies must balance growth with sustainability, ensuring mining benefits all stakeholders while preserving Meghalaya’s natural heritage. The challenge ahead is to strike a delicate balance between economic growth, environmental sustainability, and social justice – where mining is not just a revenue-generating enterprise but a responsibly managed sector that benefits all stakeholders while safeguarding the state’s natural heritage for future generations.
Environmental Restoration Mandate
The Supreme Court’s Rs 100 crore directive for environmental restoration highlights the severe ecological damage caused by unregulated coal mining in Meghalaya. Decades of extraction have left deforested hills, acidified rivers, and unstable soil, threatening biodiversity and communities. Rehabilitation success depends on meticulous planning and execution to ensure funds are effectively used for afforestation, soil stabilization, and pollution control. The challenge lies in reclaiming abandoned mining sites and restoring fragile ecosystems affected by reckless mining.
Meghalaya’s recovery depends on genuine ecological restoration, not superficial efforts. Afforestation must restore native species, while polluted rivers need scientific treatment to revive aquatic life. Success requires transparency, community involvement, and strict monitoring to prevent resource misapplication. If executed well, this landmark ecological rehabilitation effort could set a precedent for sustainable mining practices across India, transforming Meghalaya from a cautionary tale into a model of responsible resource management.
Future of Responsible Mining
The global mining industry offers compelling examples of how sustainability and profitability can coexist. Andrew Forrest’s Fortescue Metals Group in Australia is pioneering a transition to green hydrogen and electrification, proving that large-scale resource extraction can be aligned with environmental responsibility. In Indonesia, advancements in High-Pressure Acid Leach (HPAL) technology have allowed for the efficient processing of low-grade ores without the excessive ecological damage once associated with such operations. These cases demonstrate that Meghalaya, too, can redefine its coal industry by integrating innovation, sustainability, and scientific precision into its mining practices.
The road ahead is challenging but offers a chance to redefine Meghalaya’s mining legacy. Successful implementation can boost the economy, restore the environment, and set a national standard. The true test is whether Meghalaya upholds responsible mining or falls into regulatory loopholes, shaping its future and that of generations to come. Meghalaya’s wealth is slipping through toxic streams and collapsing tunnels. With new policies on the horizon, can it reclaim what’s lost before it’s too late?
(Bijoy A. Sangma is a development professional, policy analyst, commentator on governance, economic policies, social justice and religious freedom. Currently a PhD scholar, he has previously worked with national and international organizations in leadership roles, contributing to thought leadership in public policy and social transformation. e-mail: [email protected])